Antropologic Linguistics

Anthropological linguistics is more often considered to be a sub discipline of anthropology than linguistics and historically that is where it comes from. The primary concern of anthropologic linguistics was with the unwritten languages in America and their recording in order to preserve them in case the number of speakers started to decrease drastically. Moreover, the languages were seen as a vital part of culture so the knowledge of language was required to be able to completely understand the analyzed culture.

Anthropological linguistics deals with describing many languages and issues such as the influence of language on the behavior of the community that uses it. The well known Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a result of such investigations. According to this theory the language that people use has strong influence on the perception of the world. Therefore, anthropolinguists deal with problems such as how it happens that peoples sharing a culture might speak different languages and peoples who have different cultures sometimes share a language.

Also finding a systematic way of putting down previously unwritten languages in a way that would reflect all linguistic peculiarities and phonetic phenomena is the task of anthropologic linguists. Such undertakings not only lead to preserving endangered languages, but are also important from the point of view of culture. To find appropriate way of writing in a language that has only been spoken linguists seek the phonetic patterns. It is also important to provide a way of symbolizing speech sounds in such a way as to enable the native speakers to read it in order to verify if the linguists’ assumptions are correct. When this task is accomplished the analysis of morphemes begins and later on also of syntax.

 As anthropologic linguistics works on the assumption that communities’ cultures are reflected by language change it investigates synchronic and diachronic language change – that is it analyses various dialects and if it is possible the historical development. Moreover, the emergence and evolution of pidgins and creoles is also within the scope of interest of anthropologic linguistics. What is more, language acquisition in children is also studied by anthropolinguists, however, not the stages of language development are examined, but how the acquisition of linguistic abilities is perceived by the community. It turns out that in certain cultures parents do not interfere with the process, while in others caretakers put a lot of effort in teaching verbal etiquette.

Activity

http://www.proprofs.com/games/word-search/linguistic-anthropology/

Glossary American Structuralism

Syncategoramatic: Traditionally, a categorematic term is any term that stands alone, as a meaningful constituent of a proposition, while syncategorematic terms need others to make a meaningful unit.

Behaviorism: It has sometimes been said that “behave is what organisms do.” Behaviorism is built on this assumption, and its goal is to promote the scientific study of behavior.

Metalenguage:Language used in talking about language.

Mentalism: The belief that some mental phenomena cannot be explained by physical laws.

monistic: The doctrine that mind and matter are formed from, or reducible to, the same ultimate substance or principle of being.

Philology: the study of human speech especially as the vehicle of literature and as a field of study that sheds light on cultural history.

Phoneme: any of the abstract units of the phonetic system of a language that correspond to a set of similar speech sounds (as the velar \k\ of cool and the palatal \k\ of keel) which are perceived to be a single distinctive sound in the language.

 Fasible goals: an aim or desired result possible to do easily or conveniently.

 Literary standard: is accessible through general or personal educational effort, transcends geographic and social barriers, and is used on occasions described as formal.

Colloquial standard: is observed in situations lacking formal behaviors among observably privileged classes within a larger speech meaning.

 Provincial standard: is observed among those remote geographically from the formative environments of cultural centers.

Local dialect: is that of an interacting group with which others have so little contact that dialect speakers are incomprehensible without considerable attention. The occasions od difference are time, plus geographic and/or educational isolation.

 Contrasts: an obvious difference between two or more things.

Syntax:  the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence.

Lexicon: the vocabulary of a language, an individual speaker or group of speakers, or a subject.

Activity

http://www.proprofs.com/games/word-games/word-scramble/glossary-american-structuralism/

Antropological Linguistics

Ethnography: descriptive study of a particular human society. Contemporary ethnography is based almost entirely on fieldwork. The ethnographer lives among the people who are the subject of study for a year or more, learning the local language and participating in everyday life while striving to maintain a degree of objective detachment. He or she usually cultivates close relationships with “informants” who can provide specific information on aspects of cultural life. While detailed written notes are the mainstay of fieldwork, ethnographers may also use tape recorders, cameras, or video recorders. Contemporary ethnographies have both influenced and been influenced by literary theory

Linguistic ethnography (LE): is a theoretical and methodological development orientating towards particular, established traditions but defining itself in the new intellectual climate of late modernity and post-structuralism.

The most representatives in linguistic ethnography are Edward Sapir, Benjamin Lee Whorf, and Franz Boas.
Sapir propuso una visión alternativa del lenguaje en 1921, afirmando que el lenguaje determina el pensamiento, de forma que cada lengua lleva aparejada una forma de pensar. La idea de Sapir fue adoptada y desarrollada durante los años 1940 por Whorf y finalmente se convirtió en la hipótesis de Sapir-Whorf.

http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/ethnography
http://www.uklef.net/linguisticethnography.html
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir

Linguistic history

Activity

 

http://www.proprofs.com/games/word-games/hangman/linguistics-history/

Avram noam chomsky

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Chomsky

Noam Chomsky is a US political theorist and activist, and institute professor of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Besides his work in linguistics, Chomsky is internationally recognized as one of the most critically engaged public intellectuals alive today. Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics” and a major figure of analytic philosophy. His work has influenced fields such as computer science, mathematics, and psychology.

Noam Chomsky was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1928. His parents were Jewish. Her mother was part of the radical activism back in1930s. His uncle owned a newsstand that worked as an “ intellectual center”. For this we deduce where his critical thinking to politics came from. His father was an eminent scholar, who taught Hebrew.

Chomsky first set out his abstract analysis of language in his doctoral dissertation (1955) and Syntactic Structures (1957). Instead of starting with minimal sounds, as the structural linguists had done, Chomsky began with the rudimentary or primitive sentence; from this base he developed his argument that innumerable syntactic combinations can be generated by means of a complex series of rules.

In 1957, Chomsky published a book called Syntactic Structures, book that started a revolution in linguistics. According to his transformational grammar, every intelligible sentence conforms not only to grammatical rules peculiar to its particular language, but also to “deep structures,” a universal grammar underlying all languages and corresponding to an innate capacity of the human brain. Chomsky and other linguists who built on his work formulated transformational rules, which transform a sentence with a given grammatical structure (e.g., “John saw Mary”) into a sentence with a different grammatical structure but the same essential meaning (“Mary was seen by John”). Transformational linguistics has been influential in psycholinguistics, particularly in the study of language acquisition by children. In the 1990s Chomsky formulated a “Minimalist Program” in an attempt to simplify the symbolic representations of the language facility.

Some of his books are:

·         American Power and the new Mandarines

·         The Architecture of language

·         At war with Asia,

·         Aspects of theory of syntax

·         Barriers, Fail State: the abuse of Power and the abuse of Democracy.

Chomsky is reported, in recent surveys, to be the most cited of all living authors, ranking in fact with Marx, Shakespeare and the Bible as one of the ten most quoted sources in the humanities.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky

http://www.chomsky.info/bios.htm

http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1825/18250040.htm

Activity

http://www.proprofs.com/games/jigsaw/chomsky/

Gramática de los casos: Fillmore y análisis del discurso

Gramática de los casos


Como teoría de análisis gramatical fue desarrollada a partir 1968 por el lingüista americano Charles J. Fillmore en el contexto de la Gramática transformacional.Nace para suplir las deficiencias de la gramática chomskiana en lo que concierne a significado. Según esta teoría, una predicación está constituida por un verbo que es combinado con uno o varios papeles temáticos, tales como el Agente, el Tema o el Instrumental. Estos papeles temáticos toman la forma de sintagmas nominales, y la distribución de estos viene dada por el caso gramatical que es una propiedad asignada a los SN de manera obligatoria, pues en caso de carecer de ella, la frase resultante no sería gramatical. La labor del caso es pues la de asignar una función gramatical específica a cada sintagma nominal.

Hace hincapié en las relaciones consistentes de significado en la estructura , lo que sintácticamente se define como sujeto en la estructura profunda, puede corresponder al caso “agente” o “instrumento” .

 

Carlos abre la puerta.

 

La llave abre la puerta.

Análisis del discurso

El análisis del discurso (o Estudios del discurso) es una transdisciplina de las ciencias humanas y sociales que estudia sistemáticamente el discurso escrito y hablado como una forma del uso de la lengua, como evento de comunicación y como interacción, en sus contextos cognitivos, sociales, políticos, históricos y culturales.

El primer lingüista moderno que comenzó el estudio de la relación de las condenas y acuñó el nombre de "analisis del discurso", que después se denota una rama de la lingüística aplicada, fue Zellig Harris. Su método consistía en utilizar un criterio de la distribución complementaria al igual que realiza el campo de la fonología, retoma a procedimientos de la lingüística descriptiva enfocándose también en las conexiones entre la situación social y el uso lingüístico. El Análisis del Discurso (AD) como disciplina independiente surgió en los años 1960 y 1970 en varias disciplinas y en varios países al mismo tiempo: la antropología, la lingüística, la filosofía, la poética, la sociología, la psicología cognitiva y social, la historia y las ciencias de la comunicación. El desarrollo del AD fue paralelo y relacionado con la emergencia de otras transdisciplinas, como la semiótica o semiología, la pragmática, la sociolingüística, la psicolingüística, la socioepistemología y la etnografía de la comunicación. En los últimos años el AD se ha hecho muy importante como aproximación cualitativa en las ciencias humanas y sociales.

Van Dijk (1992) sugiere que en todos los niveles del discurso podemos encontrar "huellas del contexto". Estas huellas o indicios permiten entrever características sociales de los participantes como por ejemplo sexo, clase, etnicidad, edad, origen, posición y otras formas de pertenencia grupal. Además, sostiene que los contextos sociales son cambiantes y como usuarios de una lengua seguimos pasivamente a los dictados de grupo, sociedad o cultura.

¿Cómo se empleará en mi carrera?
Dado que la carrera se trabaja con el lenguaje , ya sea el propio o el que se quiere traducir, es importante conocer ambas lenguas y el uso que tienen las palabras para poder saber cuando una oración es gramáticamente correcta o incorrecta, así como entender el papel del sujeto en ella, sobre todo en la lengua a traducir. También es importante conocer las implicaciones culturales que las palabras u oraciones tienen y la correcta conexión entre ellas.

¿Para qué me sirve? ¿ Para que me servirá en el futuro?

Para distiguir el papel que juega el sujeto en una oración. Para tener un mejor entendimiento de la lengua extranjera, en este caso el inglés. Estos conocimientos serán llevados a la práctica en mi profesión.   

Actividades

http://www.proprofs.com/games/crossword/gramtica-de-los-casos-y-anlisis-del-discurso/

Referencias

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_de_casos

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C3%A1lisis_del_discurso

Halliday: teoría y propuesta

Para Halliday la adquisición de una lengua consiste en el dominio progresivo del potencial funcional, que se incrementa hasta una tercera etapa, en el cual se registran ya funciones características del lenguaje adulto.
Esta teoría se basa en que el significado es un factor determinante de los inicios del lenguaje infantil, en que los procesos interactivos son quienes explican este lenguaje. El significado y el proceso netamente interactivo constituyen los dos pilares en que se sustenta esta teoría, por lo que Halliday concluye que las condiciones en que aprendemos la lengua, en gran medida están determinados culturalmente. Se conoce como parte de la psicología social.
El aprendizaje de la lengua consiste en el dominio progresivo de las macrofunciones o funciones básicas señaladas y la formación de un potencial semántico con respecto a cada uno de tales componentes funcionales. Propone siete alternativas básicas en la etapa inicial del desarrollo lingüístico de un niño normal:

1. Instrumental: "yo quiero", para la satisfacción de necesidades materiales.
2. Regulatoria: "haz como te digo", para controlar el comportamiento de otros.
3. Interaccional: "tu y yo", para familiarizarse con otras personas.
4. Personal: "aquí estoy yo", para identificarse y expresarse a sí mismo.
5. Heurística: "dime por qué", para explorar el mundo circundante y el interno.
6. Imaginativa: "vamos a a suponer", para crear un mundo propio.
7. Informática: "tengo algo que decirte", para comunicar nueva información.

Lo realmente importante no es que el niño haya adquirido esta o aquella función sino que haya internalizado el hecho de que el lenguaje sirve para esos propósitos, que sepa que es bueno hablar.
Halliday considera que el proceso de adquisición de una lengua, el individuo cumple tres fases:

1. Primera Fase: (1 a 15 meses): Domina las funciones básicas extra-lingüísticas. Funciones que corresponden con usos de la lengua simple, no integrados y necesarios para la transición al sistema adulto, por considerarse universales culturales. Las funciones en esta fase son discretas y su aparición ocurre rigurosamente en el orden señalado. Desarrolla una estructura articulada en expresión y contenido. Los sonidos producidos no coinciden y los significados no son identificables.
2. Segunda Fase: (16 – 22 meses): Transición del lenguaje del niño al primer lenguaje del adulto. Se divide en dos etapas:

• La Macética o de "aprender": conjunción de las funciones personal y heurística, que se refiere al proceso de categorización y conocimiento del entorno.
• La pragmática o de "hacer": en la que se conjugan la instrumental y la reguladora. El niño por medio del lenguaje satisface las necesidades básicas de comunicación y le sirve para conectarse con el medio ambiente. Significa el primer paso hacia el uso "informativo" de lengua. El diálogo, factor de importancia capital para la teoría de Halliday, implica formas puramente lingüísticas de interacción social y al mismo tiempo ejemplifica el principio general por el que las personas adoptan papeles, los asignan o rechazan los que se asignan.

1. Tercera Fase (22 meses en adelante):El niño entra en una fase que supone la adecuación del lenguaje infantil a la lengua del adulto. Ya no se dará una correspondencia unívoca entre función y uso, se caracteriza por una pluralidad funcional. Aparecen tres nuevas funciones:

• Ideativa: para expresar contenidos, producto de la experiencia del hablante y su visión del mundo real (utilización del lenguaje para aprender).
• Interpersonal: opera para establecer y mantener las relaciones sociales.
• Textura: es el mensaje lingüístico en sí mismo. Proporciona al hablante la posibilidad de utilizar adecuadamente los potenciales de significado y de organizarlos de modo coherente. Domina un sistema multi-funcional, ya que sabe como asignar los significados.

La propuesta teórica de Michael Halliday, implicó el cuestionamiento de las propuestas de dos grandes lingüístas: Ferdinand de Saussure y William Lavob, puesto que ninguna de las dos permitía un estudio acabado del binarismo "lengua"/"habla": o era la opción sistémica (lengua) o la opción funcional (habla). Halliday plantea la discusión al respecto en el libro "El lenguaje como semiótica social" (1979), donde profundiza respecto a un nuevo modelo para el estudio del lenguaje integrando el componente sociocultural como clave en su comprensión.

Conceptos

Neurolinguistica: se conoce como neurolingüística a la disciplina que analiza los métodos del cerebro humano para lograr la comprensión, la generación y la identificación del lenguaje, tanto hablado como escrito.

Estilistica:estudio del estilo o de la expresión lingüística en general.

Sociolinguística: la sociolingüística estudia el lenguaje en relación con la sociedad. Su objetivo de análisis es la influencia que tienen en una lengua los factores derivados de las diversas situaciones de uso, tales como la edad, el sexo, el origen étnico, la clase social o el tipo de educación recibida por los interlocutores, la relación que hay entre ellos o el tiempo y lugar en que se produce la comunicación lingüística.

Psicolinguistica: La psicolingüística o psicología del lenguaje, es una disciplima dentro de la psicología interesada en el estudio de los factores psicológicos y neurológicos que capacitan a los humanos para la adquisición, uso y comprensión del lenguaje.

 

 

Fuentes
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos16/desarrollo-del-lenguaje/desarrollo-del-lenguaje.shtml
http://definicion.de/neurolinguistica/
http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/diccio_ele/diccionario/sociolinguistica.htm
http://enciclopedia.us.es/index.php/Psicoling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica




Actividad

http://www.proprofs.com/games/word-games/hangman/halliday-teora-y-propuesta-1/

Linguistic circle of Copenhagen

 

http://www.educaplay.com/es/recursoseducativos/645103/copenhagen_school.htm

The London School

The London School

From the sixteenth century onwards, England was remarkable for the extent to which various aspects of practical linguistics flourished here, by which term I refer to such activities as orthoepy ( the codification and teaching of correct pronounciation), lexicography, invention of shorthand systems, spelling reform, and the creation of artificial `philosophical language´ such as those of George Dalgarno and Jhon Wilkins.

The study of the linguistic tradition had as a consequence the enphasis in phonetics.  Phonetic study in the modern sense was pioneered by Henry Sweet (1845-1912). Sweet based his historical studies on a detailed undestanding of the workings of the vocal organs. Sweet´s phonetics was practical as well as academic; he was actively concern with sistematizing phonetic transcription in connection with problems of language-teaching and of spelling reform. He was one of the early advocates of the notion of phoneme, which for him was a matter of practical importance as the unit which should be symbolized in an ideal system of orthography.

Sweet´s general approach to phonetics was continued by Daniel Jones( 1881-1926). Jones stressed the importance for language study of thorough training in the practical skills of perceiving, transcribing, and reproducing minute distinctions of speech-sound; he invented the system of cardinal reference-points which made precise and consistent transcription possible in the case of vowels.

The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized, distinct academic in Britain was J. R. Firth (1890-1960). J.R. Firth turned linguistics proper into a recognized, distinct academic subject. Firth said that the phonology of a language consist of a number of system of alternative possibilities which come into play at different points in phonological unit such a syllable, and there is no reason to identify the alternants in one system with those in another. A phonemic transcription, represent a fully consistent application of the particular principles of orthography on which European alphabetic scripts happen to be more or less accurately based. Firth´s theory allows for an unlimited variety of systems, the more distinct systems a given description recognizes the more complex that description will be.

A Firthian phonologycal analysis recognizes a number of ‘systems’ of prosodies operating at various points in structure which determine the pronunciation of a given form in interaction with segment-sized phonematic units.The terminological distinction between ‘prosodies’ and ‘phonematic units’ could as well be thought of as ‘prosodies’ that happen to be only one segment long.

The concept of the prosodic unit in phonology seems, so attractive and natural that it is surprising to find that it is not more widespread. In fact just one American Descriptivists, Zellig Harris, did use a similar notion; but Harris’s ‘long components’ though similar to Firth’s prosodies, are distinct and theoretically less attractive. Firth insisted that sound and meaning in language were more directly related that they are ussually taken to be.

Linguistics of the London School have done much more work on the analysis of intonation that have Americans of any camp and the Brithis work.Firthian phonology, it is primarily concerned with the nature and import of the various choices which one makes in deciding to utter one particular sentence out of the infinitely numerous sentencesthat one’s language makes available.

http://www.proprofs.com/games/crossword/the-school-of-london/

The Prague School

The Prague School of linguistics was inspired by Vilem Mathesius (1882 - 1945) and given prominence by one of the most influential linguists of the 20th century, Roman Jakobson (1896 - 1982). Around Mathesius, like-minded scholars meet for regular discussion from 1926 onwards(until they were scattered by the Second World War). the term is also used to cover certain scholars elsewhere who consciously adhered to the Prague style. The hallmark of Prague linguistics was that it saw the language in terms of function. 

Central to their approach was the belief that linguistic theory should go beyond the mere description of linguistic structure to explain the functions fulfilled by linguistic forms. For example, a great many sentences build on information which is already known (theme) and provide some new information on that topic (rheme). And unless an unusual stylistic effect is required, the functional requirements of the sentence are fulfilled grammatically when the syntax allows the theme to precede the rheme.

Trubetzkoy gives a central role to the phoneme. Trubetzkoy's chief contributions to linguistics lie in the domain of phonology, in particular in analyses of the phonological systems of individual languages and in the search for general and universal phonological laws. His magnum opus, Grundzüge der Phonologie (Principles of Phonology), was issued posthumously. In this book he famously defined the phoneme as the smallest distinctive unit within the structure of a given language. This work was crucial in establishing phonology as a discipline separate from phonetics.

Another manifestation of the Prague school attitude that language is a tool which has a job to do is the fact that members of that School were much preoccupied with the aesthetic, literary aspects of language use.

André Martinet set out his theories of diachronic phonology in his Economie des Changements Phonétiques(1955). One of the key concepts in Martinet´s account of sound change is that of the functional yield of a phonological opposition. the functional yield of an opposition is, the amount work it does in distinguishing utterances which are other wise alike.

Roman Osipovich Jakobson was a scholar of Russia. He developed, with Nikolai Trubetzkoy, techniques for the analysis of sound systems in languages, inaugurating the discipline of phonology. He went on to apply the same techniques of analysis to syntax and morphology, and controversially proposed that they be extended to semantics.

Activity

http://www.educaplay.com/es/recursoseducativos/645100/the_school_of_prague.htm